" [link to www.accelrys.com]

Hydrogen and the Structure of Gamma Alumina
Karl Sohlberg1, Stephen J Pennycook1,2, and Sokrates T Pantelides1,2

Gamma-alumina is an enormously important material in catalysis. It is used as a catalyst in hydrocarbon conversion (petroleum refining), and as a support for automotive and industrial catalysts. Key products C2.CASTEP

Industry sectors
Petrochemical, Automotive

Company
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Vanderbilt University (USA)

Even through gamma alumina is so widely used, the experimental data available about its structure has given rise to a long history of disagreement among scientists. The most widely held view is that gamma alumina is a stoichiometric oxide of aluminium with a defect spinel structure. The minority view is that gamma alumina actually contains hydrogen. Now, based on their DFT calculations, scientists from ORNL and Vanderbilt University have presented a description of the structure of gamma alumina which has enabled them to reconcile these two interpretations of experimental data.

The researchers conducted a series of density functional calculations on the dehydration of gamma alumina using the CASTEP program from Accelrys. They carried out three sets of calculations:

Fully relaxed structures were computed for gamma alumina at various levels of dehydration. Vibrational frequencies were computed for H atoms in nominal tetrahedral and nominal octahedral sites. The energy barrier to diffusion of H through the bulk was computed. The results from each of these calculations were in good accord with experimental data available through the literature.

The calculations showed that certain spinel aluminas exist over a range of hydrogen content. In particular, gamma-alumina behaves as a 'reactive sponge' in that it can store and release water in a reactive way. This chemical activity offers a basis for understanding long-standing puzzles in the behavior of aluminas in catalytic systems.

This structure leads to very unusual surface chemistry, which can explain some of the versatility and value of transition aluminas. When a water molecule reaches the surface of gamma-alumina it breaks up. The H enters the material, and the O stays on the surface. Al atoms migrate from the centre of the material and combine with the O, thus extending the crystal matrix. Valence requirements determine that for every three H2O molecules, six H move into the material, two Al move out, and the crystal extends by a stoichiometric Al2O3 unit. The reverse process is also possible. This behaviour is a consequence of the fact that the H content in gamma alumina may fall anywhere within the range [0 < n < 0.6] for Al2O3 · n(H2O).

The availability of H and O at the surface of gamma alumina is likely to have significant implications for the understanding of the remarkable catalytic properties of this material.

Reference
Karl Sohlberg1, Stephen J Pennycook1,2, and Sokrates T Pantelides1,2 , "Hydrogen and the structure of the transition aluminas", JACS, Vol. 121, No. 33, p. 7493-7499, 1999.

1. Solid State Division, PO Box 2008, Oak Ridge national Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6031
2. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235

Nice little tri-methyl Al chemical called TMA can be sprayed into the air and was done in these rocket studies listed earlier:

" [link to www.gi.alaska.edu]

Citation:

"Each Danish rocket released a chemical called trimethylaluminate (TMA, for short) as it sped upward through altitude 80 km (50 miles). At this altitude the rocket was still in darkness and the TMA formed a yellowish trail. Then as the rocket entered sunlight, the TMA being released glowed a beautiful blue color."

Any chemist knows TMA vapor is reactive with water and makes aluminum oxide particles in air as it reacts with water vapor. It is even used in atomic layer vapor deposition methods: " [link to www.funmat.uio.no] It leaves zero doubt of the aluminum oxide results. TMA is even compatable with saturated hydrocarbons. This rocket spray test set up the basic concept for chemtrails using more advanced metal compounds.

There is lots of work on various metalized compounds and mixes of compounds that work best in fuel systems, some depend on the colloid properties of the metals. These advanced methods are more complex Al compounds than the basic idea from TMA. They are designed for fuel and combustion compatability. All that work is proprietary and confidential. But one can see one of the earliest of the methods from rocket testing above that led to the methods for chemtrails.

Missing that little hint speaks to the vapidness of the oligarchy of religious blunderers present here and what else they intentionally miss. To those goobers: Blah, Blah, Blah.......... Take your chatter where someone can appreciate total vapidity.



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12 November 2004
Alaska's tundra now releasing carbon dioxide [link to north.cbc.ca]

WHITEHORSE - Scientists say they've found evidence the North has now become a source of atmosphere-warming carbon dioxide.

A new study from the Pew Center on Global Climate change says the Arctic tundra is no longer absorbing carbon dioxide, but it rather releasing it.

Scientists have estimated that soils in the Arctic have accumulated up to one-third of the entire earth's organic carbon.

When the climate warms, carbon that had been locked in frozen peat and other permafrost zones is released through melting.

Camille Parmesan of the University of Texas says the tundra has changed from being a carbon sink to a carbon source.

"For many thousands of years Alaska has sucked up quite a lot of carbon from the atmosphere and put it into long-term storage as part of the frozen tundra," she says. "The carbon bank has now turned into a carbon exhaust."

Parmesan says the changes are because winters have become warmer and drier, allowing more plants to decompose.

The study came out on the heels of a major global warming report that was released earlier this week.

That report says the rate of warming in the North is rising rapidly.



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" [link to healthandenergy.com]
Sulfur Dioxide cuts may allow Increased Global Warming

Sulfur dioxide emissions from the burning of coal and oil react with water and oxygen in the air to form sulfate aerosols; acidic compounds that fall to the Earth in the form of acid rain.

Global warming and acid rain are two environmental problems the world will be forced to reckon with in the 21st century. Unfortunately, efforts to mitigate acid rain may actually increase regional warming, according to a university professor.

"It is ironic, in a sense, that in working to solve one environmental problem you exacerbate another problem", said Michael Schlesinger, a professor of atmospheric sciences at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

Sulfur dioxide emissions from the burning of coal and oil react with water and oxygen in the air to form sulfate aerosols - acidic compounds that fall to the Earth in the form of acid rain, wreaking havoc on the world's forests and streams.

Sulfate aerosols also reflect sunlight back into space. "This acts as a negative radiative forcing which partially compensates for the positive radiative forcing due to greenhouse gases", said Schlesinger.

Take away the sulfur dioxide - a gas that doesn't stray too far from its source of emission - and all of a sudden something that used to mitigate the effects of carbon dioxide is lost, resulting in regional warming.

"In recent studies, we found that decreasing the sulfur dioxide emissions led to significant regional warming in North America, Europe and Asia", said Schlesinger.

Schlesinger and his colleagues based their study on four scenarios for emissions of greenhouse gases that are being produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change for the panel's Third Assessment Report scheduled for completion in 2001.

In these scenarios, sulfur dioxide emissions have been de-coupled from carbon dioxide emissions. Even though the burning of coal and oil produces both carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide emissions, technologies exist that allow for both low-sulfur fuels and "scrubbers" placed in smoke stacks that clean emissions of sulfur dioxide.

Therefore, in each of the scenarios that Schlesinger and his colleagues examined, sulfur dioxide emissions either leveled off early in the next century or decreased while carbon dioxide emissions continued to rise.

"Thus it appears that mitigation of the acid-rain problem by future reductions in sulfur dioxide emissions exacerbates the greenhouse-warming problem by enhancing the warming in and near the regions where the sulfur dioxide emissions are reduced", he said. Nevertheless, Schlesinger said that the problem of acid rain and the breathing difficulty he has experienced in Beijing, China, are good enough of a reason to want to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide.

Schlesinger presented the group's findings June 2 in Bonn, Germany, at a joint meeting of the IPCC and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.



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Statement of Dr. Stephen E. Schwartz
Senior Scientist - Environmental Chemistry Division
Department of Applied Science, Brookhaven National Laboratory before The Committee on Energy and Natural Resources United States Senate
Tuesday, May 24, 1994

" [link to www.ecd.bnl.gov]

Excerpt:

.....Before concluding, I must emphasize one further very important point about the aerosol forcing issue. Because the aerosol forcing is opposite in sign to the greenhouse forcing, it is sometimes suggested that this is a fortuitous situation whereby we might develop a strategy to forestall the consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect by offsetting it with the aerosol forcing. Such a policy would, however, be fundamentally flawed. As I have noted, the mean atmospheric residence times of the tropospheric aerosols that we have been discussing are about a week, in contrast to the lifetimes of carbon dioxide and the other greenhouse gases of roughly a century. At present the atmosphere contains an amount of carbon dioxide in excess of the amount that was present before the industrial era that is equal to about thirty years' worth of present fossil-fuel-combustion CO2. Thus, to the extent that anthropogenic aerosol is offsetting a fraction of the greenhouse effect of this CO2, it is a week's worth of aerosols that is offsetting decades' worth of CO2. It is clear from the differences in the atmospheric residence times of the two substances that a strategy of relying on anthropogenic sulfate aerosols to offset increased greenhouse forcing by CO2 would be relying on an ever increasing short-term fix to solve a long-term problem. Indeed, rather than solve the problem such a strategy would only exacerbate it. Everyday one would be committing oneself an ever greater rate of emissions of SO2 in the future. Such a strategy simply cannot work.

A corollary of this situation is that a substantial fraction of the warming influence due to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases to date has been offset by the cooling influence of anthropogenic aerosols, which have increased roughly in proportion to the increase in greenhouse gases. Consequently the warming influence of anthropogenic greenhouse gases now in the atmosphere is very likely substantially greater than has been inferred from temperature trends thus far over the industrial era. In other words the whitehouse effect may be masking much of the greenhouse effect.....



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" [link to www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

J Immunol. 1989 Aug 1;143(3):780-6. Related Articles, Links

Stimulation of PIP2 hydrolysis by aluminum fluoride in resting T cell subsets of normal and autoimmune-prone lpr mice.

Coggeshall KM, Altman A.

Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation, Department of Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037.

T cells of autoimmune-prone mice homozygous for the lpr mutation respond poorly to mitogens in terms of proliferation and of IL-2 production. In a previous study, we have correlated this deficient activation with the inability of mitogens to stimulate hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in lpr T cells, although these cells bind mitogen and express the TCR/CD3 complex. In order to determine whether activation-deficient lpr T cells contain functional GTP-binding (G) protein(s) and phospholipase C, we examined the effects of the G protein activating agent sodium fluoride plus Al+3 (AlF-4). AlF-4 stimulated phosphatidylinositol turnover, a response characteristic of TCR/CD3 occupancy, in mature L3T4+ and Ly2+ T cells. Second, and more important, AlF-4 stimulated the same biochemical events in L3T4-, Ly2- (double-negative) T cells from the normal thymus or from the enlarged lymph nodes of autoimmune-prone mice homozygous for the lpr mutation. However, these double-negative T cells were unresponsive to receptor-active ligands such as T cell mitogens or anti-CD3-epsilon mAb, despite their ability to bind these ligands. These findings suggest that activation-deficient double negative T cells express the receptors, G protein(s) and effector enzymes necessary for second messenger formation and further suggest that the failure of these cells to generate the relevant second messengers in response to mitogens or anti-CD3-epsilon antibody may be due to inefficient coupling of the TCR/CD3 complex to G proteins.

PMID: 2545777 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

[link to members.aol.com]